Journalism Professor Traces Media References to Race

Frank Harris III was only a kid back in the 1960s, growing up in a northern suburb of Chicago. But he recalls the cultural changes happening during that tumultuous era – changes in how Americans viewed the Vietnam War, changes in how young people related to authority figures, and changes in civil rights, especially for blacks and other racial and ethnic minorities. Those civil rights enhancements were made possible through landmark federal legislation that prohibited racial segregation and de facto denial of voting rights.

In addition to those changes, Harris remembers how the 1960s also marked a major shift in how Americans referred to blacks, both in print and in conversation. The terms “Negro” and “colored” were the terms of choice throughout the 20th century, and indeed, much of the 19th century. But during the late 1960s, those words quickly became obsolete in official proceedings and in how the media referred to black people, according to Harris.

Harris, chairman of the Southern Connecticut State University Journalism Department and a Hamden resident, is conducting a study on the evolution of how blacks are referred to in the media. His research focuses largely on the Hartford Courant, which is the longest continuously published newspaper in America.

The paper, originally known as The Connecticut Courant, began publishing in 1764, which Harris believes gives it credibility as his primary source for this project. He noted that his research includes not only the Courant’s locally written stories, but stories from other newspapers across the country that appeared in the Courant as well.

“Newspapers of the past provide an unflinching reflection of the thoughts, feelings and language of a particular place and time,” Harris said.

“I was still a kid, but I remember how the terms ‘Negro’ and ‘colored’ were perfectly acceptable through the mid- to-late 1960s,” he added. “It was at that time that the term ‘black’ began to come into play. Conversely, if you called someone of my father’s generation ‘black,’ those were fighting words.”

Harris pointed out that James Brown’s 1968 song, “Say it Loud – I’m Black and I’m Proud,” played a significant role in the growing popularity of the term.

The term “Afro-American” also was starting to be used in 1968. “There was a growing positive identification with Africa at that time,” Harris said. “Until then, there was almost a shame in calling attention to the fact that you were of African descent. But that was changing and Afro-American was regarded as being more assertive.”

His study pointed out that use of Afro-American fell into disuse rather quickly, and by 1973-1974, “black” had clearly become the term of choice.

Beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s, “African-American” has become the term of choice for many blacks, although black is still acceptable and many consider it to be the preferable term.

“I still refer to myself as black,” Harris said.

Harris has delved into the 18th and 19th centuries, as well, and noted that “Negro” was the word most often used in the media during the late 1700s and early 1800s. “Colored” began to be used by 1820 and the two were used frequently until the late 1960s.

Perhaps surprising to many is that Harris found the N-word -- considered to be the most derogatory of terms when referring to black people and often considered to be associated with the days of slavery in the United States -- hadn’t been used much in the press until around 1830.

He also notes how the term “colored” came to be.

“The first African slaves in America were generally very dark in complexion,” he said. “But over time with slave masters taking liberties with their slaves, the complexion of the descendents of the first slaves became lighter."

Eventually, he said, “colored” began to be used on a par with “Negro,” which actually means black in Spanish.

Harris, who began his study last spring, hopes to eventually do a film documentary.

“I’m learning so much history from the reading that I’ve been doing with this project,” Harris said. “I have a greater appreciation for the people who were living during the times I’ve been reading about.”

He also has interviewed for the project such individuals as comedian Bill Cosby, Ericka Huggins, a former Black Panther Party leader, as well as current and former members of the media.